The area of the brain in which the requests of the body are supposedly metalized could be located, according to some authors, in the hypothalamic region, and, more specifically, in the regions of the neural groupings specialized in the detection of homoeostatic physiological parameters and in the control of the activity of both the autonomic and the neuroendocrine nervous systems Solms and Turnbull, ; Panksepp, The activity of these neural groups, both from an electrophysiological and neurochemical point of view, is able to evoke intense somatic, visceral sensations in human beings, at a subjective level, such as the ones linked to hunger, thirst, and sexual arousal.
The Freudian concept of drive is deeply connected to energetic aspects, not only in terms of discharge, but also in terms of energy necessary to set the psychic apparatus in motion. As some authors have observed Pfaff, , such a mechanism predisposed to the generalized arousal of the whole activity of the brain can be found in all vertebrates, including human beings. The ascending projections of the BBURB system are believed to enhance the sensorimotor response and the affective one in relation to stimuli that act with diverse modalities, while the descending ones enhance the autonomic response of the organism.
The activity of the BBURB system thus guarantees the necessary quantity of energy for the promotion of all intrinsically motivated behaviors, from affective processes to cognitive ones, and, finally, also of the aspects linked to the emergence of individual consciousness.
One of the branches of the BBURB system is thought to coincide with the ascending portions of the abovementioned mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system Panksepp, As some authors have observed in the field of neuropsychoanalysis Solms and Turnbull, ; Yovell, ; Pfaff et al. The activity of the SEEKING system, in fact, promotes an appetitive predisposition in individuals, a euphoric mental state that is itself gratifying, which is thought to allow individuals to enter into relation with the surroundings in positive affective terms.
This predisposition activates specific behavioral patterns increased motor energy, exploration, and approach energy , and also affects the cognitive level, leading to associative reinforcement between gratifying experiences and the stimulus behind experience itself, through the creation of episodic memories. The activity of the SEEKING system thus predisposes the immediate organization of specific behavioral assets, which are thought to confer a direction to the action also when the object is not represented as the final goal i.
This aspect characterizes the basic, unconditioned nature of the SEEKING system, in that the latter is able to unconditionally activate behavioral patterns for instance, of search, approach, removal, attack , the aim of which becomes increasingly clear with the interaction taking place between the processes initiated by the basic affective systems so at the level of subcortical regions and neocortical areas.
Thanks to these feedbacks between subcortical and neocortical areas, it is possible to construct patterns of relationship with the external object, with its potential ability to offer gratification and with our capacity to experience it by acting Panksepp and Biven, The affective pre-representational lacking an object disposition, mediated by the activity of the SEEKING system, seems thus to project the organism toward external space, pushing it to act in a specific way.
Only through interaction with the surroundings this affective disposition is, however, able to achieve full realization. This characteristic inherent in the functioning of the SEEKING system can be seen in relation not only to the concept of libido , but also to some conceptual formulations by Bion and, in particular, to the notion of pre-conception Bion, Bion claims that when an expectation meets its corresponding realization, the psychological result is conception.
Similarly, in the field of ethology, the theory of instinct says that the phenomenon of imprinting in a young animal is the encounter of a temporized predisposition and of an object present in its surrounding that realizes it, although imprinting seems to not entail forms of rewarding Lorenz, Other than playing a fundamental role in the whole of the appetitive behaviors, the SEEKING system seems to be able to promote and energize dream activity Solms and Turnbull, Also, the malfunctioning of this system seems to be behind some conditions such as mood disorders and pathological addictions Zellner et al.
A dilemma that Fred was not able to solve was the full understanding of what produces pleasure in human beings. Freud himself found that the hypothesis that pleasure is solely linked to the decrease of the drive tension was not completely satisfactory: it will suffice to think of the intensification of tension that is sought in sexuality even though it later leads to an optimal decrease of tension.
Similarly, the idea that all motivated behavior observable in human beings can be explained by the original libidic drive is not confirmed by evidence available today. It is from this principle that some later psychoanalytic concepts derive, such as competence White, , as well as the considerations by Rapaport relating to forms of human behavior, such as curiosity and the search for novelty, that are found to be direct expression of this principle.
Motivation researchers in the field of psychology distinguish extrinsic motivation, based on the effect of attractive external rewards, from intrinsic motivation, which drives individuals into action regardless the incentive properties of environmental rewards, or internal homeostatic drives Deci, Within this conceptual framework, the major distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has been postulated to be based on the degree of self-determination or, in a broader sense, on the degree of personal agency Deci and Ryan, The neural basis of agency has generally been examined by comparing the neural activations of self-generated behavior to those of other-generated behavior Lee and Reeve, Neuroimaging findings demonstrated that neural activities of the PFC, insular cortex, cerebellum and motor-related regions e.
Besides, the degree of agency is closely related to the degree of insular cortex activity, which provides a conscious representation of bodily self-related information i. Body-ownership involves a complex neural network comprising the right temporo-parietal junction which tests the incorporeability of the external object , the secondary somatosensory cortex which maintains an on-line representation of the body , the posterior parietal and ventral premotor cortices which code for the recalibration of the hand-centered coordinate systems , and the right posterior insula which underpins the subjective experience of body-ownership; Tsakiris, Several approaches have attempted to explain the sense of agency and the sense of body-ownership: these two senses jointly constitute the sense of self and seem to derive from an interaction between current multisensory input and internal models of the body Tsakiris, The process of relating stimuli to the self should not be considered as an isolated phenomenon, but rather as embedded in a larger process depending on the environmental context Salone et al.
However, specific features of the self are also related to other cerebral regions i. The self therefore results from the integration of different brain regions, necessarily involving neural connectivity Salone et al. A broader definition of SRP includes the coordination of various basic emotional processes and bodily interoceptive stimuli e. Interestingly, a recent study demonstrated that SRP also induces neural activity in the same regions that are recruited by various rewards.
This underlines that both reward processes and self-relatedness might share a similar evaluative process de Greck et al. SCMS and their networks e. Some authors in the fields of psychoanalysis and biology have claimed that other proactive motivations that are independent of libido can be observed in human beings and in animals.
One of these is no doubt attachment, today considered a primary motivation, biologically innate, which makes any attempt to explain it as a secondary element, with respect to the gratification of drives, awkward Pine, To this regard, it must be noted that Freud elaborated two different theories of pleasure: a quantitative one, founded on the model of discharge-reduction of the drive tension, and a qualitative one, its model a type of sensual pleasure linked to child sexuality which is not easy to conceptualize in the terms set out by the principle of constancy Eagle, Later, the pioneering observation by Bowlby and, in a second moment, the review of literature on infancy by Stern , made it clear once and for all that objectual attachment is present in human beings, in such an evident and precocious manner that it is possible to consider it in all respects as a primary and autonomous motivation.
Again, according to Stern , the pleasure in children that can be observed during transitions characterized by secure attachment seems to be associated with moderate stimulation and therefore excitement , rather than by a decrease or disappearance of excitement. The work carried out by some authors in the field of neuroscience has allowed to identify with a higher degree of clarity the neural systems involved in attachment relationships in human beings and animals.
One of the core motivational and emotional systems identified by Jaak Panksepp is CARE Panksepp and Biven, , which, other than being responsible for the promotion of attachment relationships, is also responsible for the creation of social bonds in a broader sense. Phylogenetically, this system could have evolved starting from other regions responsible for sexual desire and would thus share a certain neuroregulation with the latter.
From a neurochemical point of view, in fact, the high levels of oxytocin and endogenous opioids that can be observed in mothers caring for their offspring, could explain why the experience of caring for newborns is so gratifying for many mothers Panksepp and Biven, Accordingly, endogenous opioid activity seems to play a role not only at the level of the tegmental dopaminergic mesolimbic system, promoting appetitive and approach behaviors toward the maternal object, but it also seems to play a role in the physiological development of the orbitofrontal system, a region characterized by a high density of endogenous opioids that is responsible for maintaining attachment patterns, beyond being responsible for the subsequent ability in affect regulation.
Psychobiological attunement, interactive resonance, and the mutual synchronization and entrainment of physiological rhythms are fundamental processes that mediate attachment bond formation. Over the course of the first year after birth, limbic circuitries emerge in a sequential progression, from amygdala to anterior cingulate, to insula and, finally, to orbitofrontal cortex. As a result of attachment experiences, orbitofrontal cortex enters a critical period of maturation in the last quarter of the first year, the same time that working models of attachment are first measured Schore, The orbital cortex matures in the middle of the second year, gradually allowing for an internal sense of security and self-regulation, which ultimately lead to the ability to regulate flexibly emotional states through interactions with other humans Schore, The emergence of these flexible predictive capacities are dependent on extended parental investment and caring, through which the child becomes less rigidly controlled by the environment and more in tune with possibilities for action and gratification.
It has been suggested that individual differences in the security of attachment and their sequelae can be viewed as reflecting, in part, variations in perceptions of personal agency among infants and toddlers Ford and Thompson, Besides, various forms of attachment pathologies specifically represent inefficient patterns of organization of the right brain, especially the right orbitofrontal areas Schore, , What has been discussed concerns, on the one hand, the complexity and, conversely, the risk of reductionism that connote the concept of pleasure, and on the other, the neurobiological substratum that supports the view of such complexity.
Pleasure is not the mere absence of tension, a return to the central fluctuating state prescribed by homoeostasis: on the contrary, the use of substances and consequent addiction suggest that an allostatic model is better at predicting relapses and that the desire of a reward accompanies behaviors of sensation or novelty seeking Pettorruso et al.
What we have attempted to do, by necessarily restricting the field of research, is to describe the neural structures and neurochemical systems involved in the functioning of pleasure, without giving into the paradigm of simple localizationism.
The advancement of neuroscientific knowledge actually allows to explain plurisemantic and sometimes paradoxical phenomena linked to pleasure and to the search of pleasure. However, it is appropriate to ask whether the level of knowledge so far achieved is enough to speak of interaction, mutual influence, however, promising it may be, correspondences, or even of proper integrations.
Indeed, integration presupposes that two subjects, which are irreducible one to the other at a structural level, share or render compatible parts or functions of themselves. What parts or functions can psychoanalysis and neuroscience share? The issue forms the backdrop, as it were, or a challenge, for the emerging dialog. The experience of pleasure, also beyond its limits and in the complexity of its interrelations, represents a useful and interesting testing site to attempt to integrate neuroscience and psychoanalysis.
The change in psychobiological functioning that it entails, also in the long term, by means of the processes of learning and memory, evidently occurs as an only phenomenon that the insufficient instruments our knowledge depends on translates into two different and parallel orders of events, one that can be ascribed to the body or the brain , the other to the mind. To leave the Cartesian dualism behind is the fundamental and ideal objective of this work in progress.
LJ contributed to article writing and personally revised and approved the final version of the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The authors would like to thank Prof. Filippo Maria Ferro for his precious theoretical suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript. Alcaro, A. The affective core of the self: a neuro-archetypical perspective on the foundations of human and Animal subjectivity. Una Prospettiva Neuropsicodinamica , eds G. Northoff, M. Farinelli, R. Chattat, and F. Baldoni Bologna: Il Mulino , 65— Ammaniti, M. Natura e Sviluppo delle Relazioni Interpersonali.
Roma: Laterza. Google Scholar. Bandelow, B. Borderline personality disorder: a dysregulation of the endogenous opioid system? Berridge, K. From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation. Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure. Feeling good feels good, plain and simple. Our brains are wired to maximize our experiences of pleasure. Because pleasure is such a rewarding experience, our desire to seek pleasure when possible is easily influenced.
One of the primary brain functions of addiction is the dysfunction of pleasure. Once the brain becomes chemically dependent upon substances and the experience of pleasure, it resorts to obsessions, cravings , and even physical symptoms to try and feed the need of substance-induced euphoria. Origins Behavioral Healthcare is a well-known care provider offering a range of treatment programs targeting the recovery from substance use, mental health issues, and beyond.
Our primary mission is to provide a clear path to a life of healing and restoration. We offer renowned clinical care for addiction and have the compassion and professional expertise to guide you toward lasting sobriety. The same was true even if Goldsmith subtly reminded them of the consequences on their health; looking at fitness magazines both increased their guilt, and their enjoyment, of the sweets.
Nor was it limited to confectionary; the guilty words also made the volunteers take greater pleasure in looking at sexy pictures on an online dating website. When Roeline Kuijer and Jessica Boyce at the University of Canterbury in New Zealand, recently looked at eating habits, for instance, they found that participants who naturally associated chocolate cake with guilt had lower belief in their self-control than people who associated it with more positive feelings, like celebration.
Over the next three months, that then became a self-fulfilling prophecy; although their intentions were exactly the same, the people who felt guiltier when thinking about chocolate were less successful at losing weight, compared to the people who viewed the chocolate with excitement rather than despair. The same was also true of another group who were trying to maintain a healthy weight; over 18 months, those who innocently enjoyed their food were also the least likely to pile on the pounds.
Health campaigns can backfire in surprising ways Getty Images. She suspects we would feel very different if you are hurting someone else in the process, for instance — if you were to skip visiting your grandmother to go somewhere like a concert, say. But the discoveries may highlight a problem with some public health campaigns. And as Kuijer and Boyce point out in their article, it is perhaps not a coincidence that the United States has higher levels of obesity than France, despite the fact that people individually feel guiltier about the food they eat than the French do.
And this is supported by people who take cocaine or amphetamines, which increase dopamine a lot. This motivates them to do things. Of course, later on, this can lead to the probability of repeating things and then lead to addiction and gambling and other negative behaviors.
I generally prefer a computational framework that describes exactly what is happening in a brain area. I think dopamine is a motivational process that is very distinct from liking or pleasure.
Liking or pleasure comes from endogenous opioids [opioids our bodies naturally produce], and dopamine instead does reinforcement and motivation and learning. Subscribe to get the best Verge-approved tech deals of the week. Cookie banner We use cookies and other tracking technologies to improve your browsing experience on our site, show personalized content and targeted ads, analyze site traffic, and understand where our audiences come from.
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